Sabtu

Materi KWU 1 T1A


SIKLUS HIDUP PRODUK

Sepanjang umur suatu produk, perusahaan biasanya memformulasikan kembali strategi pemasarannya beberapa kali. Tidak hanya kondisi ekonomi berubah, dan pesaing melancarkan serangan baru namun, tambahan lagi produk itu melewati tahap baru dari minat dan persyaratan pembeli. Kosekuensinya, perusahaan harus merencanakan strategi pengganti yang tepat untuk tiap tahap dalam siklus hidup produk tersebut. Perusahaan berharap memperpanjang umur dan profitabilitas produk walaupun tahu bahwa produk tersebut tidak akan bertahan selamanya. PLC (Product life Cycle) atau siklus hidup produk merupakan konsep penting dalam pemasaran yang memberikan pemahaman tentang dinamika suatu produk yang kompetitif.

Siklus hidup produk menggambarkan tahap-tahap yang berbeda dalam sejarah penjualan suatu produk. Tahap-tahap ini berhubungan dengan kesempatan dan masalah yang berbeda mengenai strategi pemasaran dan laba potensial. Dengan mengidentifikasitahap-tahap yang berbeda dengan tantangan yang berbeda tahap suatu produk berada, atau tahap yang akan dicapai , perusahaan dapat memformulasikan encana pemasaran dengan lebih baik. Mengatakan suatu produk memiliki siklus hidup adalah menegaskan empat hal :

  1. Produk memiliki umur terbatas
  2. Penjualan produk melewati tahap-tahap yang berbeda, dengan tantangan yang berbeda bagi penjual.
  3. Laba naik turun pada tahap yang berbeda dalam siklus hidup produk
  4. Produk membutuhkan strategi pemasaran, keuangan, produksi, pembelian dan personel yang berbeda dalam tiap tahap siklus hidup mereka.

Tahap-tahap siklus produk :

1)      Perkenalan : Suatu periode pertumbuhan penjualan yang lambat saat produk itu diperkenalkan ke pasar. Pada tahap ini tidak ada laba karena banyaknya biaya-biaya untuk memperkenalkan produk.

2)      Pertumbuhan :  Suatu periode penerimaan pasar yang cepat dan peningkatan laba yang mengesankan.

3)      Kemapanan :  Suatu periode penurunan dalam pertumbuhan penjualan karena produk itu telah mencapai penerimaan sebagian besar pembeli potensial. Laba stabil atau menurun karena peningkatan pengeluaran  pemasaran untuk mempertahankan produk dalam persaingan.

4)      Kemunduran :  Periode saat penjualan menunjukkan arah menurun dan laba menipis.

Menandakan dimana tiap tahap awal dan berakhir bersifat Arbitrer. Biasanya tahap-tahap ini ditandai dimana kecepatan pertumbuhan penjualan atau penurunannya menjadi nyata.



Sumber : Manajemen pemasaran di indonesia Oleh : Kotler, A.B Susanto



TIPE PERMINTAAN
1.    1.Permintaan Negatif
Sebuah Pasar berada dalam status permintaan negatif jika sebagian besar pasar tidak menyukai produk tertentu dan bahkan bisa saja membayar untuk mencegahnya. Contoh : vaksinasi, perawatan gigi, vasektomi, dan operasi kantong empedu. Tugas pemasaran adalah menganalisa mengapa pasar tidak menyukai produk tersebut dan apakah program pemasaran yang terdiri dari perancangan ulang produk, harga yang lebih rendah, promosi yang lebih baik, dan dapat mengubah keyakinan dan perilaku pasar.
2.   Permintaan Nol
Adalah konsumen sasaran mungkin tidak sadar atau tidak tertarik pada produk tertentu. Tugas pemasaran adalah menemukan cara untuk menghubungkan manfaat produk tersebut dengan kebutuhan dan minat alami seseorang.
3.   Permintaan Laten
Adalah banyaknya konsumen yang memiliki kebutuhan yang kuat yang tidak dapat dipuaskan oelh produk yang sudah ada. Tugas pemasaran adalah mengukur ukuran pasar potensial dan mengembangkan produk yang dapat memuaskan permintaan tersebut.
4.   Permintaan Menurun
Adalah cepat atau lambat, setiap usaha akan menghadapi permintaan yang menurun pada satu atau lebih produknya. Tugas pemasaran adalah membalikan arah penurunan permintaan melalui pemasaran ulang yang kreatif.
5.   Permintaan Tidak teratur
Adalah terdapatnya permintaan yang berubah-ubah secara musiman atau harian bahkan setiap jam, sehingga menimbulkan masalah kelebihan atau kekurangan kapasitas. Tugas pemasaran adalah mencari jalan untuk mengubah pola permintaan yang sama melalui penetapan harga yang fleksibel, promosi dan insentif lainnya. Ini yang disebut dengan synchromarketing.
6.   Permintaan penuh
Adalah bila perusahaan mengalami kepuasan dengan volume bisnis mereka. Tugas pemasaran adalah mempertahankan tingkat permintaan saat ini ditengah perubahan preferensi konsumen dan peningkatan persaingan.
7. Permintaan berlebihan
Yaitu keadaan dimana permintaan lebih besar daripada penawaran. Keadaan seperti ini biasanya tidak dapat bertahan lama karena akan segera dilirik oleh pengusaha untuk segera memenuhi permintaan tersebut. Disinilah kita dapat merauk keutungan apabila kita jeli melihat peluang-peluang semacam ini.
8. Permintaan Tak Bermanfaat
Adalah produk yang tak bermanfaat akan mengundang usaha yang terorganisir untuk mengurangi konsumsinya. Tugas pemasaran adalah merangkul orang-orang yang menyukai produk yang tak bermanfaat agar menghentikannya

Dalam menjalankan fungsinya, secara organisasi ada tiga departemen utama dalam advertising Marketing Agency yang saling mendukung satu sama lain untuk mewujudkan sebuah iklan mulai dari tahapan strategi pemasaran sampai eksekusi, salah satu departemen tersebut adalah media Marketing Advertising
Media dalam periklanan sangatlah beragam. Akhir-akhir ini bahkan ditemui banyak sekali media Marketing Advertising dengan bentuk yang juga beragam. Departemen Media inilah yang mengevaluasi, merencanakan dan memilih media yang sangat beragam tersebut. Di media apa, kapan dan berapa sering pesan iklan harus dimuat atau dipasang untuk mendapatkan hasil yang maksimal dan efektif sesuai tujuan dari strategi pemasaran.
Beberapa tugas departemen media di advertising Marketing Agency diantaranya meliputi :
* Merencanakan dasar tentang strategi media, yaitu menyangkut kapan dan dalam media apa saja iklan tersebut akan dimunculkan, sesuai dengan tujuan strategi pemasaran yang hendak dicapai
* Bertanggungjawab atas kelancaran kerja di dalam Departemen Media
* Melakukan kontrol dan monitoring atas pelaksanaan tugas di departemennya
* Bekerjasama dengan bagian kreatif dan mampu memberikan masukan strategi kreatif dalam perencanaan suatu iklan berdasarkan pilihan media Marketing Advertising
* Berfungsi sebagai media planner dan media buyer
* Melakukan riset tentang efektifitas media
* Melakukan analisis mengenai karakteristik setiap media
* Mengetahui perkembangan media advertising terkini
* Melakukan negosiasi dengan pihak media untuk mendapatkan harga yang sesuai
* Melakukan kerjasama yang positif dengan berbagai media baik cetak maupun elektronik
* Menjual dan membeli sarana media ( bisa berupa ruangan di majalah, surat kabar, lokasi untuk papan bilboard, jam tayang Televisi, dan lain-lain ) kepada klien.
* Mendapatkan persetujuan klien atas semua pekerjaan yang akan dilaksanakan.

Rabu

Tugas Artikel bahasa inggris tentang TV

Kelebihan dan Kekurangan Media Televisi

A . Kelebihan Media Televisi :
- Jangakauan sangat luas
- Penayangan seketika
- Gabungan gambar, suara dan warna
- Efek demonstrasi
- Penentuan waktu pentayangan mudah
- Kontrol Mudah

Kekurangan Media Televisi :
- Cepat lewat, frekuensi tinggi
- Relatif mahal
- Tidak ada segmentasi pirsawan
- Keterangan dan pesan harus pendek
- Produksi materi lama dan mahal

B. Peranan Orang Tua

Keluarga yang ideal (lengkap) maka ada dua individu yang memainkan peranan penting yaitu peran ayah dan peran ibu, secara umum peran kedua individu tersebut adalah :

a. Peran seorang ibu adalah :

1) memenuhi kebutuhan biologis dan fisik

2) merawat dan mengurus keluarga dengan sabar, mesra dan konsisten

3) mendidik, mengatur dan mengendalikan anak

4) menjadi contoh dan teladan bagi anak

b. Peran seorang ayah adalah :

1) ayah sebagai pencari nafkah

2) ayah sebagai suami yang penuh pengertian dan memberi rasa aman

3) ayah berpartisipasi dalam pendidikan anak

4) ayah sebagai pelindung atau tokoh yang tegas, bijaksana, mengasihi keluarga.

Dari penjabaran mengenai peranan orang tua diatas, dapat disimpulkan betapa besarnya peranan orang tua dalam memenuhi kebutuhan anaknya, mendidik, mengendalikan anaknya serta menjadi teladan bagi anaknya. Orang tua memiliki tanggung jawab penuh terhadap perkembangan anaknya dan segala aktivitas anaknya serta harus bisa membimbing, mengawasi dan mengarahkan untuk melakukan kebaikan sesuai dengan kepercayaan (agama) yang dianutnya dan norma yang berlaku dimasyarakat.

C. Dampak Televisi Terhadap Anak

Televisi merupakan media massa elektronik yang sangat digemari hampir disegala jenjang usia, baik oleh anak-anak remaja maupun orang dewasa sekalipun. Menonton acara televisi sebenarnya sangat baik bagi anak-anak, remaja dan orang dewasa, dengan catatan apabila menonton televisi tersebut tidak berlebihan, acara yang ditonton sesuai dengan usia, dan bagi anak-anak adanya kontrol/pengawasan dari orang tua. Namun kenyataan yang terjadi, banyak dari anak-anak menonton acara yang seharusnya belum pantas untuk ia saksikan serta kebiasaan menonton televisi telah menjadi kebiasaan yang berlebihan tanpa diikuti dengan sikap yang kreatif, bahkan bisa menyebabkan anak bersikap pasif.

Bagi anak-anak, kebiasaan menonton televisi bisa mengakibatkan menurunnya minat baca anak-anak terhadap buku, serta masih banyak lagi dampak negatif lainnya jika dibandingkan dampak positifnya yang hanya sedikit sekali. Anak-anak cenderung lebih senang berlama-lama didepan televisi dibandingkan harus belajar, atau membaca buku.

Jika kita melihat acara-acara yang disajikan oleh stasiun televisi, banyak acara yang disajikan tidak mendidik malahan bisa dakatakan berbahaya bagi anak-anak untuk di tonton. Kebanyakan dari acara televisi memutar acara yang berbau kekerasan, adegan pacaran yang mestinya belum pantas untuk mereka tonton, tidak hormat terhadap orang tua, gaya hidup yang hura-hura (mementingkan duniawi saja) dan masih banyak lagi deretan dampak negatif yang akan menggrogoti anak-anak yang masih belum mengerti dan mengetahui apa-apa. Mereka hanya tahu bahwa acara televisi itu bagus, mereka merasa senang dan terhibur serta merasa penasaran untuk terus mengikuti acara demi acara selanjutnya. Sudah sepatutnya orang tua menyadari hal ini, mengingat betapa besarnya akibat dari menonton televisi yang berlebihan.

Dibawah ini dicantumkan data mengenai fakta tentang pertelevisian Indonesia :

    tahun 2002 jam tonton televisi anak-anak 30-35 jam/hari atau 1.560 – 1.820 jam/tahun, sedangkan jam belajar SD umumnya kurang dari 1.000jam/tahun.
    85% acara televisi tidak aman untuk anak, karena banyak mengandung adegan kekerasan, seks dan mistis yang berlebihan dan terbuka.
    saat ini ada 800 judul acara anak, dengan 300 kali tayang selama 170jam/minggu padahal satu minggu hanya ada 24 jam X 7 hari = 168 jam.
    40 % waktu tayang diisi iklan yang jumblahnya 1.200 iklan/minggu, jauh diatas rata-rata dunia 561 iklan/minggu.

Berdasarkan perjabaran diatas, bisa dibayangkan apabila anak-anak yang merupakan aset-aset bangsa yang akan meneruskan perjuangan bangsa ini serta yang akan memajukan bangsa ini, sejak kecil telah terbiasa dengan hal yang tidak bermanfaat, maka negara ini yang sudah tertinggal dan terpuruk ini akan semakin terpuruk dan tertinggal dan akhirnya akan menjadi negara yang akan di lecehkan oleh negara lain. Inilah fakta yang bukan hanya untuk kita perhatikan tetapi perlu dilakukan tindakan nyata untuk mengantisipasinya. Yang pastinya diperlukan satu-kesatuan tekat dalam setiap diri orang tua dan anggota masyarakat untuk bisa mengatisipasi dampak yang akan terjadi serta bisa menjadi kontrol bagi pihak penyiar televisi terhadap acara-acara yang ditayangkan oleh setiap stasiun televisi.

Jika kita kaji lebih jauh, dampak negatif dari menonton televisi berlebihan yaitu:

    Anak 0–4 tahun, menggangu pertumbuhan otak, menghambat pertumbuhan berbicara, kemampuan herbal membaca maupun maupun memahaminya, menghambat anak dalam mengekspresikan pikiran melalui tulisan.
    Anak 5-10 tahun, meningkatkan agresivitas dan tindak kekerasan, tidak mampu membedakan antara realitas dan khayalan
    Berprilaku konsumtif karena rayuan iklan
    Mengurangi kreatifitas, kurang bermain dan bersosialisasi, menjadi manusia individualis dan semdiri
    Televisi menjadi pelarian dari setiap keborosan yang dialami, seolah tidak ada pilihan lain
    Meningkatkan kemungkinan obesitas (kegemukan) karena kurang berkreativitas dan berolahraga
    Merenggangkan hubungan antar anggota keluarga, waktu berkumpul dan bercengkrama dengan anggota keluarga tergantikan dengan nonton TV, yang cendrung berdiam diri karena asik dengan jalan pikiran masing-masing
    Matang secara seksual lebih cepat asupan gizi yang bagus adegan seks yang sering dilihat menjadikan anak lebih cepat matang secara seksual, ditamah rasa ingin tahu pada anak dan keinginan untuk mencoba adegan di TV semakin menjerumuskan anak.

Mungkin kita beranggapan dampak televisi tidaklah begitu teralu besar bagi anak-anak, malahan orang tua hanya melarang anak-anaknya untuk tidak menonton film yang berbau pornoaksi, dan membiarkan mereka menonton film yang biasa-biasa saja atau memang film anak-anak, namun sebenarnya film anak-anak yang di tonton oleh anak-anak pun tidak menutup kemungkinan bisa berdampak negatif bagi anak itu sendiri. Sekarang seteleh mengetahui begitu besar dampak televisi bagi anak sudah sepatutunya setiap orang tua membatasi waktu menonton dan mengawasi serta menseleksi acara-acara apa saja yang pantas dan tidak pantas untuk di tonton oleh anak-anak.

D. Peranan Orang Tua Dalam Mengatasi Dampak Negatif Acara Televisi

Setiap orang tua memiliki tanggungjawab untuk selalu mengawasi anaknya dan memperhatikan perkembangannya, oeh sebab itu hal-hal yang sekecil apapun harus bisa diantisipasi oleh setiap orang tua mengenai dampak positif atau negatif yang akan ditimbulkan oleh hal yang bersangkutan. Begitu juga mengenai hal televisi ini, yang sudah nyata dampak negatifnya, sudah sepatutnya setiap orang tua mempersiapkan senjata untuk mengantisipasinya.

Dari begitu banyak dampak yangdiakibatkan oleh tontonan televisi, ada beberapa hal yang bisa kita lakukan oleh setiap orang tua, yaitu:

    Pilih acara yang sesuai dengan usia anak

Jangan biarkan anak-anak menonton acara yang tidak sesuai dengan usianya, walaupun ada acara yang memang untuk anak-anak, perhatikan dan analisa apakah sesuai dengan anak-anak (tidak ada unsur kekerasan, atau hal lainnya yang tidak sesuai dengan usia mereka).

    Dampingi anak memonton TV

Tujuannya adalah agar acara televisi yang mereka tonton selalu terkontrol dan orangtua bisa memperhatikan apakah acara tersebut masih layak atau tidak untuk di tonton.

    Letakan TV di ruang tengah, hindari menyediakan TV dikamar anak.

Dengan meyimpan TV diruang tengah, akan mempermudah orang tua dalam mengontrol tontonan anak-anaknya, serta bisa mengantisipasi hal yang tidak orang tua inginkan, karena kecendrungan rasa ingin tahu anak-anak sangat tinggi.

    Tanyakan acara favorit mereka dan buntu memahami pantas tidaknya acara tersebut untuk mereka diskusikan setelah menonton, ajak mereka menilai karakter dalam acara tersebut secara bijaksana dan positif
    Acara yang bisa dilakukan misalnya hiking, tamasya, siraturahim tempat sanak keluarg dan hal lainnya yang bisa membangun jiwa sosialnya.
    Perbanyak membaca buku, letakkan buku ditempat yang mudah dijangkau anak, ajak anak ke toko dan perpustakaan

    Ajak anak keluar rumah untuk menikmati alam dan lingkungan, bersosialisasi secara positif dengan orang lain.

    Perbanyak mendengarkan radio, memutar kaset atau mendengarkan musik sebagai mengganti menonton TV

Hal ini sangat penting untuk dilakukan karena dengan mendenganrkan radio, anak akan terlatih kemampuan mendengarnya, jika kita bandingkan denga menonton televisi hanya merangsang anak untuk mengikuti alur cerita tampa menganalisis lebih lanjut dari apa yang dialihat dan dengar. Begitu juga dengan mendengarkan musik lebih baik dilakukan bila dibandingkan dengan menonton televisi karena bisa melatih perkembangan imajinasi anak.

E. Dampak Positif Televisi

- Banyak mengetahui berita-berita yang ada dalam negri maupun luar negri

- Yang tadinya tidak tahu tentang sumber-sumber berita berasal , menjadi tahu

- Menambah kreatifitas dan intelek seseorang

- Menambah pembelajaran secara tidak langsung

- Dapat membantu antar sesama ketika kita melihat sebuah berita terdapat bencana


INI ADALAH TRASLETE BAHASA INGGRISNYA

Advantages and Disadvantages of Television 

A. Media Pros Television:- Is vast Jangakauan- Impressions instantaneous- Combined images, sound and color- The effects of the demonstration- The timing is easy pentayangan- Easy ControlDisadvantages Media Television:- Quick pass, high-frequency- Relatively expensive- No segmentation of viewers- Specification and the message should be short- Production of the material long and costlyB. Role of ParentsThe ideal family (complete) then there are two individuals who played an important role is the role of father and mother roles, the general role of the individual are:a. The role of a mother is:1) meet the needs of biological and physical2) taking care of families with a patient, loving and consistent3) educate, organize and control the child's4) an example and role model for childrenb. The role of a father is:1) the father as breadwinner2) the father as a man of understanding and provide security3) participate in the education of the child's father4) as a protective father figure or a firm, wise, loving family.From the explanation above regarding the role of parents, we can conclude how much the role of parents in meeting the needs of their children, educate their children as well as controlling a model for their children. Parents have full responsibility for the development of their children and all the activities of their children and should be able to guide, supervise and direct to do good according to the belief (religion) that was followed and the norms prevailing in the community.C. Impact of Television Against ChildrenTelevision is the electronic mass media that are very popular almost in all age levels, by both teenagers and adults though. Watching television is actually very good for children, adolescents and adults, with a note when watching television is not excessive, the event which is seen according to age, and for the children of the control / supervision of their parents. But the reality of the matter, a lot of kids watch the shows he should not deserve to be seen as well as television viewing habits have become an excessive habit of neglecting the creative attitude, and even can cause children to be passive.For children, television viewing habits can lead to declining interest in reading children's book, and still many more negative impacts than positive impacts are just a few. Children tend to be more than happy to linger in front of the television than to learn, or read a book.If we look at events presented by television stations, many events can be presented not educate dakatakan even dangerous for the children to watch. Most of the television playing violent events, dating scene that should not deserve to watch them, no respect for parents, a lifestyle that rah-rah (concerned with earthly course) and many more rows of the negative impact that would menggrogoti children who still do not understand and know nothing. They only know that television is good, they feel happy and comforted, and felt anxious to keep abreast of events for the next event. Parents should have been aware of this, considering the magnitude of the result of excessive television viewing.Below are listed the data on television facts about Indonesia:

    
of 2002 hours of television children watch 30-35 hours / day or 1560-1820 hours / year, while studying at school are generally less than 1.000jam/tahun.
    
85% of television is not safe for children, because many contain scenes of violence, excessive sex and mystical and open.
    
currently there are 800 titles show children, with 300 telecasts during the week 170jam/minggu when there are only 24 hours X 7 days = 168 hours.
    
40% of airtime filled jumblahnya ad 1200 ad / week, well above the world average of 561 ads / week.Based perjabaran above, it is conceivable that children who are the assets that will continue the struggle of this nation and that will advance the nation, since childhood had been accustomed to things that are not beneficial, then this country that has been left behind and dropped it will be more dropped and left behind and eventually will become the country that will harass the other countries. This fact is not only to us but it is necessary to note the action to anticipate them. Which certainly takes the embroidery unit within each of the parents and community members to be able to anticipate the impact that would occur and could be a control for the television broadcasters to events broadcast by any television station.If we examine further, the negative impact of excessive television viewing is:

    
Children 0-4 years, disrupting the growth of the brain, inhibiting the growth of speaking, reading and herbs as well as the ability to understand, prevent the child in expressing thoughts through writing.
    
Children 5-10 years, increased aggressiveness and violence, unable to distinguish between reality and fantasy
    
Consumptive act as enticements ad
    
Reduce creativity, play and socialize less, into humans individualist and semdiri
    
Television to escape from any extravagance is experienced, as there is no other choice
    
Increase the likelihood of obesity (overweight) for lack of creativity and exercise
    
Loosen the ties between family members, time together and chatting with family members is replaced by watching TV, which tends to remain silent as cool by their own thoughts
    
Sexually mature faster good nutrition sex scenes are often seen the children in sexually mature faster, ditamah on children's curiosity and desire to try the scene in the TV plunge the child.Perhaps we think the impact of television is not so teralu great for the kids, even the parents have banned their children not to watch porno action movie that smells, and let them watch a movie or a mediocre children's films, but the actual movie children in watching by children can not rule out any negative impact on children themselves. Now seteleh knowing how much impact sepatutunya television for children is every parents restrict the time to watch and supervise the selection of events and what is appropriate and inappropriate for the watch by children.D. Parents Role In Addressing the Negative Impact of TelevisionEvery parent has a responsibility to always supervise their children and pay attention to its development, by the NII because it's the things that no matter how small must be anticipated by any parent of a positive or negative impacts that will be caused by it are concerned. So is this about television, which has a real negative impact, it is fitting for any parent preparing weapons to anticipate.Posed by the impact of so many by the spectacle of television, there are some things we can do by any parent, namely:

    
Select events that match the child's ageDo not let the kids watch a show that does not fit with his age, although there are events for children, pay attention and analysis is in accordance with the kids (there is no element of violence, or other things that do not correspond to their age).

    
Stay with the child memonton TVThe aim is that they watch television shows are always controlled, and parents can pay attention to whether the event is still viable or not for the watch.

    
Put the TV in the living room, avoid providing the child's room TV.TV room with a save the center, will facilitate the parents in controlling the spectacle of her children, and can anticipate things that parents do not want, because the trend of the curiosity of children is very high.

    
Ask your favorite shows and stuck them to understand the suitability of the event to discuss after watching them, invite them to assess the character of the show wisely and positively
    
Event that could be done eg hiking, sightseeing, where relatives siraturahim keluarg and other things that can build their social life.
    
Expand to read the book, put the book an easy place to reach children, take the child to the store and the library

    
Encourage the child to leave home to enjoy nature and the environment, socialize with others positively.

    
Expand listening to radio, play cassettes or listen to music as a substitute watching TVIt is very important to do because the radio mendenganrkan, children will be trained ability to hear, if we compare the premises only stimulates children to watch television to follow the story line without further analysis of what dialihat and hear. Likewise with music performed better when compared to watching television because they can train the development of a child's imagination.E. Positive Impact of Television- Many know the stories that exist in the domestic and overseas- Who had no idea about the sources of news coming from, to know- Adding to one's creativity and intellect- Adding an indirect learning- Can help among neighbors when we see a story there is a disaster

Senin

RUSIA

Russian Federation
Российская Федерация
Rossiyskaya Federatsiya
Flag Coat of arms
Anthem: 
Russian Anthem chorus.ogg
Государственный гимн Российской Федерации
(tr.: Gosudarstvenny gimn Rossiyskoy Federatsii)
(English: State Anthem of the Russian Federation)
Capital
(and largest city)
Moscow
55°45′N 37°37′E / 55.75°N 37.617°E / 55.75; 37.617
Official language(s) Russian official throughout the country; 27 others co-official in various regions
Ethnic groups (2010) 81% Russians
3.7% Tatars
1.4% Ukrainians
1.1% Bashkirs
1% Chuvashes
11.8% Others and Unspecified[1]
Demonym Russian
Government Federal semi-presidential republic
 -  President Dmitry Medvedev
 -  Prime Minister Vladimir Putin
 -  Chairman of the Federation Council Valentina Matviyenko (UR)
 -  Chairman of the State Duma Sergey Naryshkin (UR)
Legislature Federal Assembly
 -  Upper house Federation Council
 -  Lower house State Duma
Formation
 -  Rurik Dynasty 862 
 -  Kievan Rus' 882 
 -  Vladimir-Suzdal Rus' 1169 
 -  Grand Duchy of Moscow 1283 
 -  Tsardom of Russia 16 January 1547 
 -  Russian Empire 22 October 1721 
 -  Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic 7 November 1917 
 -  Union of Soviet Socialist Republics 10 December 1922 
 -  Russian Federation 25 December 1991 
Area
 -  Total 17,075,400 km2 (1st)
6,592,800 sq mi 
 -  Water (%) 13[2] (including swamps)
Population
 -  2012 estimate 143,030,106[3] (8th)
 -  Density 8.3/km2 (217th)
21.5/sq mi
GDP (PPP) 2011 estimate
 -  Total $2.376 trillion[4] (6th)
 -  Per capita $16,687[4] 
GDP (nominal) 2011 estimate
 -  Total $1.884 trillion[4] (9th)
 -  Per capita $13,235[4] 
Gini (2008) 42.3[5] (83rd
HDI (2011) increase 0.755[6] (high) (66th)
Currency Ruble (RUB)
Time zone (UTC+3 to +12 (exc. +5))
Date formats dd.mm.yyyy
Drives on the right
ISO 3166 code RU
Internet TLD .ru, .su, .рф
Calling code +7
Russia Listeni/ˈrʌʃə/ or /ˈrʊʃə/ (Russian: Россия, tr. Rossiya; IPA: [rɐˈsʲijə] ( listen)), officially known as both Russia and the Russian Federation[7] (Russian: Российская Федерация, tr. Rossiyskaya Federatsiya; IPA: [rɐˈsʲijskəjə fʲɪdʲɪˈratsɨjə] ( listen)), is a country in northern Eurasia.[8] It is a federal semi-presidentialrepublic, comprising 83 federal subjects. From northwest to southeast, Russia shares borders with Norway, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland (both via Kaliningrad Oblast), Belarus, Ukraine, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, China, Mongolia, and North Korea. It also has maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk, and the United States by the Bering Strait. At 17,075,400 square kilometres (6,592,800 sq mi), Russia is the largest country in the world, covering more than one eighth of the Earth's inhabited land area. Russia is also the eighth most populous nation with 143 million people.[9] It extends across the whole of northern Asia and 40% of Europe, spanning nine time zones and incorporating a wide range of environments and landforms. Russia has the world's largest reserves of mineral and energy resources[10] and is the largest oil producer[11] and second largest natural gas producer[12] globally. Russia has the world's largest forest reserves and its lakes contain approximately one-quarter of the world's fresh water.[13]
The nation's history began with that of the East Slavs, who emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD.[14] Founded and ruled by a Varangian warrior elite and their descendants, the medieval state of Rus arose in the 9th century. In 988 it adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire,[15] beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culturenext millennium.[15] Rus' ultimately disintegrated into a number of smaller states; most of the Rus' lands were overrun by the Mongol invasion and became tributaries of the nomadic Golden Horde.[16] The Grand Duchy of Moscow gradually reunified the surrounding Russian principalities, achieved independence from the Golden Horde, and came to dominate the cultural and political legacy of Kievan Rus'. By the 18th century, the nation had greatly expanded through conquest, annexation, and exploration to become the Russian Empire, which was the third largest empire in history, stretching from Poland in Europe to Alaska in North America.[17][18] for the
Following the Russian Revolution, Russia became the largest and leading constituent of the Soviet Union, the world's first constitutionally socialist state and a recognized superpower,[19] which played a decisive role in the Allied victory in World War II.[20][21] The Soviet era saw some of the most significant technological achievements of the 20th century, including the world's first human spaceflight. The Russian Federation was founded following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, but is recognized as the continuing legal personality of the Soviet state.[22]
Russia has the world's 11th largest economy by nominal GDP or the 6th largest by purchasing power parity, with the 5th largest nominal military budget. It is one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and possesses the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction.[23] Russia is a great power and a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council, a member of the G8, G20, the Council of Europe, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, the Eurasian Economic Community, the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), the World Trade Organisation (WTO), and is the leading member of the Commonwealth of Independent States.

Etymology

The name Russia is derived from Rus, a medieval state populated mostly by the East Slavs. However, this proper name became more prominent in the later history, and the country typically was called by its inhabitants "Русская Земля" (russkaya zemlya) which could be translated as "Russian Land" or "Land of Rus'". In order to distinguish this state from other states derived from it, it is denoted as Kievan Rus' by modern historiography. The name Rus' itself comes from Rus people, a group of Varangians (possibly Swedish Vikings)[24][25] who founded the state of Rus (Русь).
An old Latin version of the name Rus' was Ruthenia, mostly applied to the western and southern regions of Rus' that were adjacent to Catholic Europe. The current name of the country, Россия (Rossiya), comes from the Greek version of Rus', nowadays spelled Ρωσία [rosˈia] instead of Ρωσσία, which was the denomination of Kievan Rus in the Byzantine Empire.[26]

History

Early periods

One of the first modern human bones of the age of 35 000 years was found in Russia, in Kostenki on the Don River banks.[citation needed] The only remains of the Denisova hominin that lived about 41,000 years ago were discovered in Denisova Cave (South Siberia).[citation needed]
In prehistoric times the vast steppes of Southern Russia were home to tribes of nomadic pastoralists.[27]Ipatovo,[27] Sintashta,[28]Arkaim,[29] and Pazyryk,[30] which bear the earliest known traces of mounted warfare, a key feature in nomadic way of life. Remnants of these steppe civilizations were discovered in such places as
In classical antiquity, the Pontic Steppe was known as Scythia. Since the 8th century BC, Ancient GreekTanais and Phanagoria.[31] In 3rd – 4th centuries AD a semi-legendary Gothic kingdom of Oium existed in Southern Russia till it was overrun by Huns. Between the 3rd and 6th centuries AD, the Bosporan Kingdom, a Hellenistic polity which succeeded the Greek colonies,[32] was also overwhelmed by nomadic invasions led by warlike tribes, such as the Huns and Eurasian Avars.[33] A Turkic people, the Khazars, ruled the lower Volga basin steppes between the CaspianBlack Seas until the 8th century.[34] traders brought their civilization to the trade emporiums in and
The ancestors of modern Russians are the Slavic tribes, whose original home is thought by some scholars to have been the wooded areas of the Pinsk Marshes.[35] The East Slavs gradually settled Western Russia in two waves: one moving from Kiev toward present-day Suzdal and Murom and another from Polotsk toward Novgorod and Rostov. From the 7th century onwards, the East Slavs constituted the bulk of the population in Western Russia[36] and slowly but peacefully assimilated the native Finno-Ugric peoples, including the Merya, the Muromians, and the Meshchera.

Kievan Rus

Kievan Rus' in the 11th century
The establishment of the first East Slavic states in the 9th century coincided with the arrival of Varangians, the traders, warriors and settlers from the Baltic Sea region. Primarily they were Vikings of Scandinavianto the Black and Caspian[37] According to the Primary Chronicle, a Varangian from Rus' people, named Rurik, was elected ruler of Novgorod in 862. In 882 his successor Oleg, ventured south and conquered Kiev,[38] which had been previously paying tribute to the Khazars; so the state of Kievan Rus' started. Oleg, Rurik's son Igor and Igor's son Sviatoslav subsequently subdued all local East Slavic tribes to Kievan rule, destroyed the Khazar khaganate and launched several military expeditions to Byzantium and Persia. origin, who ventured along the waterways extending from the eastern Baltic Seas.
In the 10th to 11th centuries Kievan Rus' became one of the largest and most prosperous states in Europe.[39]Vladimir the Great (980–1015) and his son Yaroslav I the Wise (1019–1054) constitute the Golden Age of Kiev, which saw the acceptance of Orthodox Christianity from Byzantium and the creation of the first East Slavic written legal code, the Russkaya Pravda. The reigns of
In the 11th and 12th centuries, constant incursions by nomadic Turkic tribes, such as the Kipchaks and the Pechenegs, caused a massive migration of Slavic populations to the safer, heavily forested regions of the north, particularly to the area known as Zalesye.[40]
The age of feudalism and decentralization had come, marked by constant in-fighting between members of the Rurik Dynasty that ruled Kievan Rus' collectively. Kiev's dominance waned, to the benefit of Vladimir-SuzdalNovgorod Republic in the north-west and Galicia-Volhynia in the south-west. in the north-east,
Ultimately Kievan Rus' disintegrated, with the final blow being the Mongol invasion of 1237–40,[41] that resulted in the destruction of Kiev[42] and the death of about half the population of Rus'.[43] The invaders, later known as Tatars, formed the state of the Golden Horde, which pillaged the Russian principalities and ruled the southern and central expanses of Russia for over three centuries.[44]
Galicia-Volhynia was eventually assimilated by the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, while the Mongol-dominated Vladimir-Suzdal and Novgorod Republic, two regions on the periphery of Kiev, established the basis for the modern Russian nation.[15] The Novgorod together with Pskov retained some degree of autonomy during the time of the Mongol yoke and were largely spared the atrocities that affected the rest of the country. Led by Prince Alexander Nevsky, Novgorodians repelled the invading Swedes in the Battle of the Neva in 1240, as well as the Germanic crusaders in the Battle of the Ice in 1242, breaking their attempts to colonize the Northern Rus'.

Grand Duchy of Moscow

Sergius of Radonezh blessing Dmitry Donskoy in Trinity Sergius Lavra, before the Battle of Kulikovo, depicted in a painting by Ernst Lissner.
The most powerful successor state to Kievan Rus' was the Grand Duchy of Moscow ("Moscovy" in the Western chronicles), initially a part of Vladimir-Suzdal. While still under the domain of the Mongol-Tatars and with their connivance, Moscow began to assert its influence in the Central Rus' in the early 14th century, gradually becoming the main leading force in the process of the Rus' lands' reunification and expansion of Russia.
Those were hard times, with frequent Mongol-Tatar raids and agriculture suffering from the beginning of the Little Ice Age. Like in the rest of Europe, plagues hit Russia somewhere once every five or six years from 1350 to 1490. However, due to the lower population density and better hygiene (widespread practicing of banya, the wet steam bath),[45] the population loss caused by plagues was not so severe as in the Western Europe, and the pre-Plague populations were reached in Russia as early as 1500.[46]
Led by Prince Dmitry Donskoy of Moscow and helped by the Russian Orthodox Church, the united army of Russian principalities inflicted a milestone defeat on the Mongol-Tatars in the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380. Moscow gradually absorbed the surrounding principalities, including the formerly strong rivals, such as TverNovgorod. and
Ivan III (the Great) finally threw off the control of the Golden Horde, consolidated the whole of Central and Northern Rus' under Moscow's dominion, and was the first to take the title "Grand Duke of all the Russias".[47] After the fall of Constantinople in 1453, Moscow claimed succession to the legacy of the Eastern Roman Empire. Ivan III married Sophia Palaiologina, the niece of the last Byzantine emperor Constantine XI, and made the Byzantine double-headed eagle his own, and eventually Russian, coat-of-arms.

Tsardom of Russia

In development of the Third Rome ideas, the Grand Duke Ivan IV (the "Awesome"[48] or "the Terrible") was officially crowned the first Tsar ("Caesar") of Russia in 1547. The Tsar promulgated a new code of laws (Sudebnik of 1550), established the first Russian feudal representative body (Zemsky Sobor) and introduced local self-management into the rural regions.[49][50]
During his long reign, Ivan IV nearly doubled the already large Russian territory by annexing the three Tatar khanates (parts of disintegrated Golden Horde): Kazan and Astrakhan along the Volga River, and Sibirean Khanate in South Western Siberia. Thus by the end of the 16th century Russia was transformed into a multiethnic, multiconfessional and transcontinental state.
However, the Tsardom was weakened by the long and unsuccessful Livonian War against the coalition of Poland, Lithuania, and Sweden for access to the Baltic coast and sea trade.[51] At the same time the Tatars of the Crimean Khanate, the only remaining successor to the Golden Horde, continued to raid Southern Russia.[52] In effort to restore the Volga khanates, Crimeans and their Ottoman allies invaded central Russiaburn down parts of Moscow in 1571.[53] But next year the large invading army was thoroughly defeated by Russians in the Battle of Molodi, forever eliminating the threat of the Ottoman-Crimean expansion into Russia. The raids of Crimeans, however, didn't cease until the late 17th century, though the construction of new fortification lines across Southern Russia, such as the Great Abatis Line, constantly narrowed the area accessible to incursions. and were even able to
The death of Ivan's sons marked the end of the ancient Rurik Dynasty in 1598, and in combination with the famine of 1601–03[54] led to the civil war, the rule of pretenders and foreign intervention during the Time of Troubles in the early 17th century.[55] Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth occupied parts of Russia, including Moscow. In 1612 the Poles were forced to retreat by the Russian volunteer corps, led by two national heroes, merchant Kuzma Minin and Prince Dmitry Pozharsky. The Romanov Dynasty acceded the throne in 1613 by the decision of Zemsky Sobor, and the country started its gradual recovery from the crisis.
Russia continued its territorial growth through the 17th century, which was the age of Cossacks. Cossacks were warriors organized into military communities, resembling pirates and pioneers of the New World. In 1648, the peasants of Ukraine joined the Zaporozhian Cossacks in rebellion against Poland-Lithuania during the Khmelnytsky Uprising, because of the social and religious oppression they suffered under Polish rule. In 1654 the Ukrainian leader, Bohdan Khmelnytsky, offered to place Ukraine under the protection of the Russian Tsar, Aleksey I. Aleksey's acceptance of this offer led to another Russo-Polish War (1654–1667). Finally, Ukraine was split along the Dnieper River, leaving the western part (or Right-bank Ukraine) under Polish rule and eastern part (Left-bank Ukraine and Kiev) under Russian. Later, in 1670–71 the Don Cossacks led by Stenka Razin initiated a major uprising in the Volga region, but the Tsar's troops were successful in defeating the rebels.
In the east, the rapid Russian exploration and colonisation of the huge territories of Siberia was led mostly by Cossacks hunting for valuable furs and ivory. Russian explorers pushed eastward primarily along the Siberian River Routes, and by the mid-17th century there were Russian settlements in Eastern Siberia, on the Chukchi Peninsula, along the Amur River, and on the Pacific coast. In 1648 the Bering Strait between Asia and North America was passed for the first time by Fedot Popov and Semyon Dezhnyov.

Imperial Russia

Under Peter the Great, Russia was proclaimed an Empire in 1721 and became recognized as a world power. Ruling from 1682 to 1725, Peter defeated Sweden in the Great Northern War, forcing it to cede West Karelia and Ingria (two regions lost by Russia in the Time of Troubles),[56] as well as Estland and Livland, securing Russia's access to the sea and sea trade.[57] On the Baltic Sea Peter founded a new capital called Saint Petersburg, later known as Russia's Window to Europe. Peter the Great's reforms brought considerable Western European cultural influences to Russia.
The reign of Peter I's daughter Elisabeth in 1741–62 saw Russia's participation in the Seven Years WarEastern Prussia for a while and even took Berlin. However, upon Elisabeth's death, all these conquests were returned to Kingdom of Prussia by pro-Prussian Peter III of Russia. (1756–63). During this conflict Russia annexed
Catherine II (the Great), who ruled in 1762–96, presided over the Age of Russian Enlightenment. She extended Russian political control over the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and incorporated most of its territories into Russia during the Partitions of Poland, pushing the Russian frontier westward into Central Europe. In the south, after successful Russo-Turkish Wars against the Ottoman Empire, Catherine advanced Russia's boundary to the Black Sea, defeating the Crimean Khanate. As a result of victories over the Ottomans, by the early 19th century Russia also made significant territorial gains in Transcaucasia. This continued with Alexander I's (1801–25) wresting of Finland from the weakened kingdom of Sweden in 1809 and of Bessarabia from the Ottomans in 1812. At the same time Russians colonized Alaska and even founded settlements in California, like Fort Ross.
In 1803–06 the first Russian circumnavigation was made, later followed by other notable Russian sea exploration voyages. In 1820 a Russian expedition discovered the continent of Antarctica.
The Russian Empire in 1866 and its spheres of influence
In alliances with various European countries, Russia fought against Napoleon's France. The French invasion of Russia at the height of Napoleon's power in 1812 failed miserably as the obstinate resistance in combination with the bitterly cold Russian winter led to a disastrous defeat of invaders, in which more than 95% of the pan-European Grande Armée perished.[58] Led by Mikhail Kutuzov and Barclay de Tolly, the Russian army ousted Napoleon from the country and drove through Europe in the war of the Sixth Coalition, finally entering Paris. Alexander I headed Russia's delegation at the Congress of Vienna that defined the map of post-Napoleonic Europe.
The officers of the Napoleonic Wars brought ideas of liberalism back to Russia with them and attempted to curtail the tsar's powers during the abortive Decembrist revolt of 1825. At the end of the conservative reign of Nicolas I (1825–55) a zenith period of Russia's power and influence in Europe was disrupted by defeat in the Crimean War. Between 1847 and 1851 a massive wave of Asiatic cholera swept over Russia, claiming about one million lives.[59]
Nicholas's successor Alexander II (1855–81) enacted significant changes in the country, including the emancipation reform of 1861. These Great Reforms spurred industrialization and modernized the Russian army, which had successfully liberated Bulgaria from Ottoman rule in 1877–78 Russo-Turkish War.
Bolshevik by Boris Kustodiev, a visual representation of the Russian Revolution
The late 19th century saw the rise of various socialist movements in Russia. Alexander II was killed in 1881 by revolutionary terrorists, and the reign of his son Alexander III (1881–94) was less liberal but more peaceful. The last Russian Emperor, Nicholas II (1894–1917), was unable to prevent the events of the Russian Revolution of 1905, triggered by the unsuccessful Russo-Japanese War and the demonstration incident known as Bloody Sunday. The uprising was put down, but the government was forced to concede major reforms, including granting the freedoms of speech and assembly, the legalization of political parties, and the creation of an elected legislative body, the State Duma of the Russian Empire. Migration to Siberiaagrarian reform. Between 1906 and 1914 more than four million settlers arrived in that region.[60] increased rapidly in the early 20th century, particularly during the Stolypin
In 1914 Russia entered World War I in response to Austria's declaration of war on Russia's ally Serbia, and fought across multiple fronts while isolated from its Triple Entente allies. In 1916 the Brusilov Offensive of the Russian Army almost completely destroyed the military of Austria-Hungary. However, the already-existing public distrust of the regime was deepened by the rising costs of war, high casualties, and rumors of corruption and treason. All this formed the climate for the Russian Revolution of 1917, carried out in two major acts.
The February Revolution forced Nicholas II to abdicate; he and his family were imprisoned and later executed during the Russian Civil War. The monarchy was replaced by a shaky coalition of political parties that declared itself the Provisional Government. An alternative socialist establishment existed alongside, the Petrograd Soviet, wielding power through the democratically elected councils of workers and peasants, called Soviets. The rule of the new authorities only aggravated the crisis in the country, instead of resolving it. Eventually, the October Revolution, led by Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin, overthrew the Provisional Government and created the world’s first socialist state.

Soviet Russia

The symbols of the early Soviet era: Tatlin's Tower project and the giant Worker and Kolkhoz Woman sculpture group.
Following the October Revolution, a civil war broke out between the anti-communist White movement and the new regime with its Red Army. Russia lost its Ukrainian, Polish, Baltic, and Finnish territories by signing the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk that concluded hostilities with the Central Powers in World War I. The Allied powers launched an unsuccessful military intervention in support of anti-Communist forces, while both the Bolsheviks and White movement carried out campaigns of deportations and executions against each other, known respectively as the Red Terror and White Terror. By the end of the civil war the Russian economy and infrastructure were heavily damaged. Millions became White émigrés,[61] and the Povolzhye famine claimed up to 5 million victims.[62]
The Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (called Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic at the time) together with three other Soviet republics formed the Soviet Union, or USSR, on 30 December 1922. Out of the 15 republics of the USSR, the Russian SFSR was the largest in terms of size, and making up over half of the total USSR population, dominated the union for its entire 69-year history.
Following Lenin's death in 1924, Joseph Stalin, an elected General Secretary of the Communist Party, managed to put down all opposition groups within the party and consolidate much power in his hands. Leon Trotsky, the main proponent of the world revolution, was exiled from the Soviet Union in 1929, and Stalin's idea of socialism in one country became the primary line. The continued internal struggle in the Bolshevik partyGreat Purge, a period of mass repressions in 1937–38, in which hundreds of thousands of people were executed, including military leaders convicted in coup d'état plots.[63] culminated in the
Tanks going to the front, Uralmash
The government launched a planned economy, industrialisation of the largely rural country, and collectivizationpenal labor camps,[64] including many political convicts, and millions were deported and exiled to remote areas of the Soviet Union.[64] The transitional disorganisation of the country's agriculture, combined with the harsh state policies and a drought, led to the famine of 1932–33.[65] However, though with a heavy price, the Soviet Union was transformed from a largely agrarian economy to a major industrial powerhouse in a short span of time. of its agriculture. During this period of rapid economical and social changes, millions of people were sent to
The Appeasement policy of Great Britain and France towards Adolf Hitler's annexations of Ruhr, Austria and finally of Czechoslovakia enlarged the might of Nazi Germany and put a threat of war to the Soviet Union. Around the same time the German Reich allied with the Empire of Japan, a rival of the USSR in the Far EastSoviet–Japanese Border Wars in 1938–39. and an open enemy in the
In August 1939, after another failure of attempts to establish a counter-Nazism alliance with Britain and France, the Soviet government agreed to conclude the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact with Germany, pledging non-aggression between the two countries and dividing their spheres of influence in Eastern Europe. While Hitler conquered Poland, France and other countries acting on single front at the start of the World War II, the USSR was able to build up its military and regain some of the former territories of the Russian EmpireSoviet invasion of Poland and the Winter War. during the
On 22 June 1941, Nazi Germany broke the non-aggression treaty and invaded the Soviet Union with the largest and most powerful invasion force in human history,[66] opening the largest theater of the Second World War. Although the German army had considerable success early on, their onslaught was halted in the Battle of Moscow. Subsequently the Germans were dealt major defeats first at the Battle of Stalingrad in the winter of 1942–43,[67] and then in the Battle of Kursk in the summer of 1943. Another German failure was the Siege of Leningrad, in which the city was fully blockaded on land between 1941–44 by German and Finnish forces, suffering starvation and more than a million deaths, but never surrendering.[68] Under Stalin's administration and the leadership of such commanders as Georgy Zhukov and Konstantin Rokossovsky, Soviet forces drove through Eastern Europe in 1944–45 and captured Berlin in May 1945. In August 1945 the Soviet Army ousted Japanese from China's Manchukuo and North Korea, contributing to the allied victory over Japan.
First human to travel into space, Yuri Gagarin
The 1941–45 period of World War II is known in Russia as the Great Patriotic War. In this conflict, which included many of the most lethal battle operations in human history, Soviet military and civilian deaths were 10.6 million and 15.9 million respectively,[69] accounting for about a third of all World War II casualties. The full demographic loss to the Soviet peoples was even greater.[70] The Soviet economy and infrastructure suffered massive devastation[71] but the Soviet Union emerged as an acknowledged superpower.
The Red Army occupied Eastern Europe after the war, including East Germany. Dependent socialist governments were installed in the Eastern bloc satellite states. Becoming the world's second nuclear weapons power, the USSR established the Warsaw Pact alliance and entered into a struggle for global dominance, known as the Cold War, with the United States and NATO. The Soviet Union exported its Communist ideology to newly formed People's Republic of China and North Korea, and later into Cuba and many other countries. Significant amounts of the Soviet resources were allocated in aid to the other socialist states.[72]
After Stalin's death and a short period of collective rule, new leader Nikita Khrushchev denounced the cult of personality of Stalin and launched the policy of de-Stalinization. Penal labor system was reformed and many prisoners were released and rehabilitated (many of them posthumously).[73] The general easement of repressive policies became known later as the Khrushchev thaw. At the same time, tensions with the United States heightened when the two rivals clashed over the deployment of the U.S. Jupiter missiles in Turkey and Soviet missiles in Cuba.
Soviet and Russian space station Mir
In 1957 the Soviet Union launched the world's first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, thus starting the Space Age. Russian cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first human to orbit the Earth aboard Vostok 1 manned spacecraft on 12 April 1961.
Following the ousting of voluntarist and erratic Khrushchev in 1964, another period of collective rule ensued, until Leonid Brezhnev became the leader. The era of 1970s and the early 1980s was designated later as the Era of Stagnation, a period when the economic growth slowed and social policies became static. The Kosygin reform, aimed into partial decentralization of the Soviet economy and shifting the emphasis from heavy industry and weapons to light industry and consumer goods, was stifled by the conservative Communist leadership.
In 1979 the Soviet forces entered Afghanistan at the request of its communist government. The occupation drained economic resources and dragged on without achieving meaningful political results. Ultimately the Soviet Army was withdrawn from Afghanistan in 1989 because of international opposition, persistent anti-Soviet guerilla warfare (enhanced by the U.S.), and a lack of support from Soviet citizens.
From 1985 onwards, the last Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the policies of glasnostperestroika (restructuring) in an attempt to modernize the country and make it more democratic. However, this led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements. Prior to 1991, the Soviet economy was the second largest in the world,[74] but during its last years it was afflicted by shortages of goods in grocery stores, huge budget deficits, and explosive growth in money supply leading to inflation.[75] (openness) and
In August 1991, a coup d'état attempt by members of Gorbachev's government, directed against Gorbachev and aimed at preserving the Soviet Union, instead led to the end of socialist rule. The USSR was dissolvedpost-Soviet states in December 1991. into 15

Russian Federation

Boris Yeltsin was elected the President of Russia in June 1991, in the first direct presidential election in Russian history. During and after the Soviet disintegration, wide-ranging reforms including privatisation and market and trade liberalization were being undertaken,[76] including the radical changes along the lines of "shock therapy" as recommended by the United States and International Monetary Fund.[77] All this resulted in a major economy crisis, characterized by 50% decline of both GDP and industrial output between 1990–95.[76][78]
The privatization largely shifted control of enterprises from state agencies to individuals with inside connections in the government system. Many of the newly rich businesspeople took billions in cash and assets outside of the country in an enormous capital flight.[79] The depression of state and economy led to the collapse of social services; the birth rate plummeted while the death rate skyrocketed. Millions plunged into poverty, from 1.5% level of poverty in the late Soviet era, to 39–49% by mid-1993.[80] The 1990s saw extreme corruption and lawlessness, rise of criminal gangs and violent crime.[81]
The 1990s were plagued by armed conflicts in the Northern Caucasus, both local ethnic skirmishes and separatist Islamist insurrections. Since the Chechen separatists had declared independence in the early 1990s, an intermittent guerrilla war was fought between the rebel groups and the Russian military. Terrorist attacks against civilians carried out by separatists, most notably the Moscow theater hostage crisis and Beslan school siege, caused hundreds of deaths and drew worldwide attention.
Russia took up the responsibility for settling the USSR's external debts, even though its population made up just half of the population of the USSR at the time of its dissolution.[82] High budget deficits caused the 1998 Russian financial crisis[83] and resulted in further GDP decline.[76]
On 31 December 1999 President Yeltsin resigned, handing the post to the recently appointed Prime Minister, Vladimir Putin, who then won the 2000 presidential election. Putin suppressed the Chechen insurgency, although sporadic violence still occurs throughout the Northern Caucasus. High oil prices and initially weak currency followed by increasing domestic demand, consumption and investments has helped the economy grow for nine straight years, improving the standard of living and increasing Russia's influence on the world stage.[84] While many reforms made during the Putin presidency have been generally criticized by Western nations as un-democratic,[85] Putin's leadership over the return of order, stability, and progress has won him widespread popularity in Russia.[86]
On 2 March 2008, Dmitry Medvedev was elected President of Russia, whilst Putin became Prime Minister.

Politics

Moscow Kremlin, the working residence of the President of Russia.
According to the Constitution of Russia, the country is a federation and semi-presidential republic, wherein the President is the head of state[87] and the Prime Minister is the head of government. The Russian Federation is fundamentally structured as a multi-party representative democracy, with the federal government composed of three branches:
The president is elected by popular vote for a six-year term (eligible for a second term, but not for a third consecutive term).[88] Ministries of the government are composed of the Premier and his deputies, ministers, and selected other individuals; all are appointed by the President on the recommendation of the Prime Minister (whereas the appointment of the latter requires the consent of the State Duma). Leading political parties in Russia include United Russia, the Communist Party, the Liberal Democratic Party of Russia, and Fair Russia.
Western observers have raised questions as to how much of Russia's political system corresponds to Western liberal democratic ideals. Academics have often complained about the difficulty of classifying Russia's political system. According Steve White, during the Putin presidency Russia made clear that it had no intention of establishing a "second edition" of the American or British political system, but rather a system that was closer to Russia's own traditions and circumstances.[89] Richard Sakwa wrote that the Russian government is undoubtedly considered legitimate by the great majority of the Russian people and seeks to deliver a set of public goods without appealing to extra-democratic logic to achieve them, but whether the system was becoming an illiberal or delegative democracy was more contentious.[90]

Foreign relations

Leaders of the BRIC nations in 2008: (l-r) Manmohan Singh of India, Dmitry Medvedev of Russia, Hu Jintao of China and Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva of Brazil.
The Russian Federation is recognized in international law as successor state of the former Soviet Union.[22]UN Security Council, membership in other international organisations, the rights and obligations under international treaties, and property and debts. Russia has a multifaceted foreign policy. As of 2009, it maintains diplomatic relations with 191 countries and has 144 embassies. The foreign policy is determined by the President and implemented by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia.[91] Russia continues to implement the international commitments of the USSR, and has assumed the USSR's permanent seat in the
As the successor to a former superpower, Russia's geopolitical status has been often debated, particularly in relation to unipolar and multipolar views on the global political system. While Russia is commonly accepted to be a great power, in recent years it has been characterized by a number of world leaders,[92][93] scholars,[94][95] as a currently reinstating or potential superpower.[96][97][98] commentators and politicians
An important aspect of Russia's relations with the West is the criticism of Russia's political system and human rights management by the Western governments, the mass media and the leading democracy and human rights watchdogs. In particular, such organisations as the Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch consider Russia to have not enough democratic attributes and to allow few political rights and civil liberties to its citizens.[99][100] Freedom House, an international organisation funded by the United States, ranks Russia as "not free", citing "carefully engineered elections" and "absence" of debate.[101] Russian authorities dismiss these claims and especially criticise Freedom House. The Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs has called the 2006 Freedom in the World report "prefabricated", stating that the human rights issues have been turned into a political weapon in particular by the United States. The ministry also claims that such organisations as Freedom House and Human Rights Watch use the same scheme of voluntary extrapolation of "isolated facts that of course can be found in any country" into "dominant tendencies".[102]
Member states, observers and partners of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation.
As one of five permanent members of the UN Security Council, Russia plays a major role in maintaining international peace and security. The country participates in the Quartet on the Middle East and the Six-party talks with North Korea. Russia is a member of the Group of Eight (G8) industrialized nations, the Council of Europe, OSCE and APEC. Russia usually takes a leading role in regional organisations such as the CIS, EurAsEC, CSTO, and the SCO.[103] Former President Vladimir Putin had advocated a strategic partnership with close integration in various dimensions including establishment of EU-Russia Common Spaces.[104] Since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Russia has developed a friendlier, albeit volatile relationship with NATO. The NATO-Russia Council was established in 2002 to allow the 26 Allies and Russia to work together as equal partners to pursue opportunities for joint collaboration.[105]
Russia maintains strong and positive relations with other BRIC countries. In recent years, the country has sought to strengthen ties especially with the People's Republic of China by signing the Treaty of Friendship as well as building the Trans-Siberian oil pipeline geared toward growing Chinese energy needs.[106]

Military

The Russian military is divided into the Ground Forces, Navy, and Air Force. There are also three independent arms of service: Strategic Rocket Forces, Military Space Forces, and the Airborne Troops. In 2006, the military had 1.037 million personnel on active duty.[107] It is mandatory for all male citizens aged 18–27 to be drafted for a year of service in Armed Forces.[84]
Russia has the largest stockpile of nuclear weapons in the world. It has the second largest fleet of ballistic missile submarines and is the only country apart from the U.S. with a modern strategic bomber force.[23][108]tank force is the largest in the world, its surface navy and air force are among the largest ones. Russia's
The country has a large and fully indigenous arms industry, producing most of its own military equipment with only few types of weapons imported. Russia is the world's top supplier of arms, a spot it has held since 2001, accounting for around 30% of worldwide weapons sales[109] and exporting weapons to about 80 countries.[110]
Official government military spending for 2008 was $58 billion, the fifth largest in the world, though various sources have estimated Russia’s military expenditures to be considerably higher.[107][111] Currently, a major equipment upgrade worth about $200 billion is on its way between 2006 and 2015.[112]

Political divisions

Map of the federal subjects of the Russian Federation.
Federal subjects
The Russian Federation comprises 83 federal subjects.[113] These subjects have equal representation—two delegates each—in the Federation Council.[114] However, they differ in the degree of autonomy they enjoy.
  • 46 oblasts (provinces): most common type of federal subjects, with federally appointed governor and locally elected legislature.
  • 21 republics: nominally autonomous; each has its own constitution, president or a similar post, and parliament. Republics are allowed to establish their own official language alongside Russian but are represented by the federal government in international affairs. Republics are meant to be home to specific ethnic minorities.
  • 9 krais (territories): essentially the same as oblasts. The "territory" designation is historic, originally given to frontier regions and later also to the administrative divisions that comprised autonomous okrugs or autonomous oblasts.
  • 4 autonomous okrugs (autonomous districts): originally autonomous entities within oblasts and krais created for ethnic minorities, their status was elevated to that of federal subjects in the 1990s. With the exception of Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, all autonomous okrugs are still administratively subordinated to a krai or an oblast of which they are a part.
  • 1 autonomous oblast (the Jewish Autonomous Oblast): historically, autonomous oblasts were administrative units subordinated to krais. In 1990, all of them except for the Jewish AO were elevated in status to that of a republic.
  • 2 federal cities (Moscow and St. Petersburg): major cities that function as separate regions.
Federal districts
Federal subjects are grouped into eight federal districts, each administered by an envoy appointed by the President of Russia.[115] Unlike the federal subjects, the federal districts are not a subnational level of government, but are a level of administration of the federal government. Federal districts' envoys serve as liaisons between the federal subjects and the federal government and are primarily responsible for overseeing the compliance of the federal subjects with the federal laws.

Geography

The topography of Russia
Russia is the largest country in the world; its total area is 17,075,400 square kilometres (6,592,800 sq mi). There are 23 UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Russia, 40 UNESCO biosphere reserves,[116] 40 national parks and 101 nature reserves. It lies between latitudes 41° and 82° N, and longitudes 19° E and 169° W.
Russia has a wide natural resource base, including major deposits of timber, petroleum, natural gas, coal, ores and other mineral resources.

Topography

The two widest separated points in Russia are about 8,000 km (4,971 mi) apart along a geodesic line. These points are: the boundary with Poland on a 60 km (37 mi) long Vistula Spit separating the Gdańsk Bay from the Vistula Lagoon; and the farthest southeast of the Kuril Islands. The points which are furthest separated in longitude are 6,600 km (4,101 mi) apart along a geodesic line. These points are: in the west, the same spit; in the east, the Big Diomede Island. The Russian Federation spans 9 time zones.
Mount Elbrus, the highest point of the Caucasus, Russia and Europe
Most of Russia consists of vast stretches of plains that are predominantly steppe to the south and heavily forested to the north, with tundra along the northern coast. Russia possesses 10% of the world's arable land.[117] Mountain ranges are found along the southern borders, such as the Caucasus (containing Mount Elbrus, which at 5,642 m (18,510 ft) is the highest point in both Russia and Europe) and the Altai (containing Mount Belukha, which at the 4,506 m (14,783 ft) is the highest point of Siberia outside of the Russian Far East); and in the eastern parts, such as the Verkhoyansk Range or the volcanoes of Kamchatka PeninsulaKlyuchevskaya Sopka, which at the 4,750 m (15,584 ft) is the highest active volcano in Eurasia as well as the highest point of Asian Russia). The Ural Mountains, rich in mineral resources, form a north-south range that divides Europe and Asia. (containing
Russia has an extensive coastline of over 37,000 km (22,991 mi) along the Arctic and Pacific Oceans, as well as along the Baltic Sea, Sea of Azov, Black Sea and Caspian Sea.[84] The Barents Sea, White Sea, Kara Sea, Laptev Sea, East Siberian Sea, Chukchi Sea, Bering Sea, Sea of Okhotsk, and the Sea of Japan are linked to Russia via the Arctic and Pacific. Russia's major islands and archipelagos include Novaya Zemlya, the Franz Josef Land, the Severnaya Zemlya, the New Siberian Islands, Wrangel Island, the Kuril Islands, and Sakhalin. The Diomede Islands (one controlled by Russia, the other by the U.S.) are just 3 km (1.9 mi) apart, and Kunashir Island is about 20 km (12.4 mi) from Hokkaidō, Japan.
Russia has thousands of rivers and inland bodies of water providing it with one of the world's largest surface water resources. The largest and most prominent of Russia's bodies of fresh water is Lake Baikal, the world's deepest, purest, oldest and most capacious fresh water lake.[118] Baikal alone contains over one fifth of the world's fresh surface water.[13] Other major lakes include Ladoga and Onega, two of the largest lakes in Europe. Russia is second only to Brazil in volume of the total renewable water resources. Of the country's 100,000 rivers,[119] the Volga is the most famous, not only because it is the longest river in Europe, but also because of its major role in Russian history.[84] The Siberian rivers Ob, Yenisey, Lena and Amur are among the very longest rivers in the world.

Climate

Taiga forest in winter, Arkhangelsk Oblast
The enormous size of Russia and the remoteness of many areas from the sea result in the dominance of the humid continental climate, which is prevalent in all parts of the country except for the tundra and the extreme southeast. Mountains in the south obstruct the flow of warm air masses from the Indian Ocean, while the plain of the west and north makes the country open to Arctic and Atlantic influences.[120]
Most of Northern European Russia and Siberia has a subarctic climate, with extremely severe winters in the inner regions of Northeast Siberia (mostly the Sakha Republic, where the Northern Pole of Cold is located with the record low temperature of −71.2 °C/−96.2 °F), and more moderate elsewhere. The strip of land along the shore of the Arctic Ocean, as well as the Russian Arctic islands, have a polar climate.
The coastal part of Krasnodar Krai on the Black Sea, most notably in Sochi, possesses a humid subtropical climate with mild and wet winters. Winter is dry compared to summer in many regions of East Siberia and the Far East, while other parts of the country experience more even precipitation across seasons. Winter precipitation in most parts of the country usually falls as snow. The region along the Lower Volga and Caspian Sea coast, as well as some areas of southernmost Siberia, possesses a semi-arid climate.